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In his pioneering work of 1831, Faraday demonstrated that a verticallyvibrated gas-liquid interface exhibits a period-doubling bifurcation from aflat state to a wavy configuration at certain frequencies or amplitudes.Typical experiments performed using thin layers of water produce "Faradayripples", modest-amplitude nonlinear standing waves. Later experiments byHashimoto and Sudo (1980) and Jameson (1966) as well as those performed in thepresent study show that much more dramatic disturbances can be generated at thegas-liquid free surface under certain ranges of vibration conditions. Thisbreakup mechanism was examined experimentally using deep layers ofpolydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) silicone oils over a range of viscosity andsinusoidal, primarily axial vibration conditions that can produce dramaticdisturbances at the gas-liquid free surface. Large-amplitude vibrations produceliquid jets into the gas, droplets pinching off from the jets, gas cavities inthe liquid from droplet impact, and bubble transport below the interface, allof which can be seen in the videos. Experiments were performed using severaldifferent PDMS silicone oils covering a range of viscosity (1-50 cSt, i.e.,1-50 times nominal water) and relatively low surface tension (e.g., 0.25 timesnominal water) over a range of vibration conditions (100-150 Hz, less than 300micron displacement, yielding accelerations ranging from 4 to 7 timesgravitational acceleration). The cylinder containing the silicone oil was 25.4mm inner diameter and approximately 100 mm long. It was typically filledhalfway with the PDMS liquid, with ambient air above. High-speed videos wererecorded at 600 to 1000 frames per second. Applications include liquid fuelrockets, inertial sensing devices, moving vehicles, mixing processes, andacoustic excitation.

Vertically-Vibrated Gas-Liquid Interfaces: Surface Deformation and Breakup