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Nigerian bituminous sands as a sustainable fossil fuel energy source were analyzed using PIXE spectrometry to establish their elemental composition, characterize, and correlate them, using their elemental concentrations as variables. Fourteen elements (Al, Si, P, S, Cl, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, and Zn) were detected. Very high enrichment factor values were obtained for S and Cr, indicating that their concentrations were sufficient to pose environmental problems. Moderate positive correlations were shown by the results of the cross-plot analysis, suggesting inter-element correlations among the samples, thus establishing relationships between the bituminous sands. Clustering analysis results indicates that two major groups of the bituminous sands were evident, but both groups were also moderately correlated with each other, indicating similar genetic origin. Elemental clustering results indicated two major groups and three sub-groups, but the groups were also fairly correlated. It is observed that all of the transition metals showed closest inter-element clustering, and this was corroborated with their Pearson correlation matrices results, indicating chemical affinity and/or similar genetic origin.

Mineralogy of Nigerian Bituminous Sands using Particle Induced X-ray Emission (PIXE) Spectrometry