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Fig. 1. Spatial scale is integral to description in ecology, including the ecology of Rangifer. Increasingly, we are aware that observations in ecology may be fundamentally altered, or even reversed, as a result of seemingly trivial changes in scale (Wiens, 1989). Scale has been labelled by some as the unifying feature of ecology (Allen & Hoekstra, 1992). Particularly important are changes in the bounds of the study area (i.e., the extent) or the size of individual sampling unit (i.e., the grain). As an example, consider species associations. Such pair-wise relationships, as between caribou and moose, are typically conducted by noting the presence or absence of species in a quadrat. The results may be scale-dependent: the choice of grain, in the form of quadrat size, can dictate the direction of species associations, i.e., whether positive or negative (e.g., Schaefer & Messier, 1994). Similarly, the choice of extent may strongly affect study conclusions. Suppose, for instance, that an animal selects strongly for a particular resource type, such as forest (Fig. 1). A study covering a large extent may indeed detect this pattern, whereas a study conducted using a smaller extent will likely conclude that no such pattern of selection exists (Fig. 1). Unfortunately, current decisions regarding grain and extent in studies of caribou ecology are typically relegated to whim.

Incorporating spatial scale into ecological studies of Rangifer