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C. Michael Barton and Julien Riel-Salvatore Neanderthals and their social and biological relationships to us have long been a subject of fascination spanning the scientific and lay communities. The hominins generally classified as Neanderthal are found in western eurasia, from the Near east to Spain, and extend temporally from sometime in the late Middle Pleistocene through Oxygen Isotope Stage (OIS) 3 of the Upper Pleistocene (Finlayson et al. 2006; Harvati 2007; klein 2003). Within this temporal and geographic range, Neanderthals almost certainly lived as mobile huntergatherers, with small family-based social groups occupying territories of variable sizes and moving between residential camps, which they occupied for variable lengths of time in order to acquire, process, and consume the resources they needed to survive and reproduce. Such a lifestyle leaves little in the way of material residues and most of what is left rapidly decomposes to invisibility from the standpoint of current archaeological data recovery methods. even the bones of animals consumed and hominins who died are preserved only in exceptional circumstances. Stone artifacts are the only behavioral residues of Neanderthal behavior that remain in any abundance, scattered across the landscape—and these are largely discarded trash (Barton 1991; Frison 1968). There are probably more known Neanderthal sites than of any other premodern human. However, of the hundreds of thousands or millions of camps at which these Pleistocene hominins carried out their daily activities over the course of 100 Au tho r c op y

A Lithic Perspective on Ecological Dynamics in the Upper Pleistocene of Western Eurasia