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Signal transduction is defined as the transfer of a signal starting from a primary messenger with a ligand that binds to specific receptors on the cell membrane. The signal then reaches the effector molecule(s) through a cascade involving various protein kinases and/or protein phosphatases as well as other molecules such as adaptor proteins, anchoring proteins, amplifier proteins, etc. Although erythrocytes are nucleus-free cells, they use elements of cell signal pathways that help them to maintain membrane integrity, ion transport, and metabolism. Aging, some “stress” conditions, and various diseases also may generate cell signals into erythrocytes (Minetti и Low, 1997; Antonelou et al. 2010; Berzosa et al. 2011; Pantaleo et al. 2010). Molecules from both erythrocyte membranes and from cytosol may take part in signal transduction. Membrane components involved in signal transduction include receptors, heterotrimeric G-proteins, adaptor and anchoring proteins, and some proteins of the Ras-superfamily. The еrythrocyte intracellular signaling cascade is divided into protein kinases and phosphatases, second messengers and small GTPases, which could further be defined as cell surface and intracellular activities (Pasini et al. 2006). In general, the mechanisms of signal transduction in erythrocytes can be summarized in the following groups: 1) specific mechanisms triggering changes in the activity of erythrocyte enzymes, 2) specific mechanisms inducing changes in the activity of transport systems, 3) signal transduction related to membrane association/dissociation of cytoskeletal and integral proteins, 4) "stressful" conditions may induce activation of specific cellular signals into erythrocytes. Phosphorylation of the erythrocyte proteins by protein kinases and phosphatases is the key mechanism for controlling erythrocyte functions.

Protein Kinases and Protein Phosphatases as Participants in Signal Transduction of Erythrocytes