English (United Kingdom)

https://curated-unify.zendy.io/wp-json/zendy-region/v1/featured_content/oa?rat=en

https://curated-unify.zendy.io/wp-json/zendy-region/v1/highlighted_journal/

Global: Zendy Plus annual

Presents the access of premium content as premium feature

Premium Content

Presents the keyphrase highlighting as premium feature

Keyphrase Highlighting

Presents the summarisation as premium feature

Summarisation

Insights

Presents the pdf analysis as premium feature

PDF Analysis

Presents the zaia usage as premium feature

ZAIA

Global: Zendy Plus monthly

Global: Zendy Tools annual

Global: Zendy Tools monthly

Global: Zendy Free Plan

In many fields and in particular in astrophysical observations, a chronic problem is the photon-starving condition, which becomes severe when images are to be obtained in short acquisition times (from micro to milliseconds), as happens in hot areas of astrophysics: optical counterparts of high-energy gamma-ray bursts, study and interpretation of Supernovae bursts. CCDs are inherently unable to provide accurate measurements of such fast low-intensity transients at high frame rates. To respond to single photons, suitable detectors must provide output signals that are sufficiently high to be individually processed by electronic circuits. Therefore, only detectors with an internal mechanism that provides a high multiplication of charge carriers are suitable, namely vacuum tube photomultipliers (PMTs), solid-state avalanche photodiodes (APDs) and electron-multiplying CCDs (EMCCDs). In PMTs, the photocathodes available for the visible spectral range provide fairly good quantum efficiency and low noise, whereas cathodes for the red and near-infrared range have lower quantum efficiency and must be cooled to reduce the dark-count rate. PMTs are bulky, and so not suitable for assembly in large arrays, fragile, sensitive to electromagnetic disturbances and mechanical vibrations, require high supply voltages (1–2 kV) and are costly devices, particularly the high-performance models. EM-CCDs exploit an internal multiplication process to achieve sub-electron readout noise, thus being able to detect single photons. Their quantum efficiency is very high, and they are inherently suited to imaging applications. However, due to their readout technique, they cannot provide frame rates higher than a few kilo-frames per second, and cannot be used in extreme timeresolved measurements. Single photons can be detected efficiently by avalanche diodes operating in Geiger mode, known as Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes (SPADs). Avalanche photodiodes have the typical advantages of solid state devices (small size, low bias voltage, low power consumption, ruggedness and reliability, suited to building integrated systems). In the last few years, a new kind of planar semiconductor device has slowly but steadily come out, namely the silicon photomultiplier (SiPM), with promising features that, in some respect, could even replace traditional photomultiplier tubes (Kovaltchouk et al, 2005). Based on a Geiger mode avalanche photodiode elementary cell, it consists of an array of n

Geiger Avalanche Photodiodes (G-APDs) and Their Characterization