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Many tactile sensors have been developed to enhance robotic manufacturing tasks, such as assembly, disassembly, inspection and materials handling as described in several survey papers (Harmon, 1982; Nicholls & Lee 1989; Ohka, 2009a). In the last decade, progress has been made in tactile sensors by focusing on limited uses. Many examples of practical tactile sensors have gradually appeared. Using a Micro Electro Mechanical System, MEMS-based tactile sensors have been developed to incorporate pressure-sensing elements and piezoelectric ceramic actuators into a silicon tip for detecting not only pressure distribution but also the hardness of a target object (Hasegawa et al., 2004). Using PolyVinylidene DiFluoride, a PVDF film-based tactile sensor has been developed to measure the hardness of tumors based on comparison between the obtained sensor output and the input oscillation (Tanaka et al., 2003). A wireless tactile sensor using two-dimensional signal transmission has been developed to be stretched over a large sensing area (Chigusa et al., 2007). An advanced conductive rubber-type tactile sensor has been developed to be mounted on robotic fingers (Shimojo et al., 2004). Furthermore, image based tactile sensors have been developed using a charge-coupled device (CCD) and complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) cameras and image data processing, which are mature techniques (Ohka, 1995, 2004, 2005a, 2005b, Kamiyama et al., 2005). In particular, the three-axis tactile sensor that is categorized as an image based tactile sensor has attracted the greatest anticipation for improving manipulation because a robot must detect the distribution not only of normal force but also of slippage force applied to its finger surfaces (Ohka, 1995, 2004, 2005a, 2005b, 2008). In addition to our three-axis tactile sensors, there are several designs of multi-axis force cells based on such physical phenomena as magnetic effects (Hackwood et al., 1986), variations in electrical capacity (Novak, 1989; Hakozaki & Shinoda 2002), PVDF film (Yamada & Cutkosky, 1994), and a photointerrupter (Borovac et al., 1996). Our three-axis tactile sensor is based on the principle of an optical waveguide-type tactile sensor (Mott et al., 1984; Tanie et al., 1986; Nicholls et al., 1990; Kaneko et al., 1992; Maekawa et al., 1992), which is composed of an acrylic hemispherical dome, a light source, an array of rubber sensing elements, and a CCD camera (Ohka, 1995, 2004a, 2005a, 2005b, 2008). The sensing element of the silicone rubber comprises one columnar feeler and eight conical

Object-Handling Tasks Based on Active Tactile and Slippage Sensations