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The article focuses on the Valence-Instrumentality-Expectancy (VIE) theory and presents a VIE behavioral choice model that includes time-lag effects. The components of the VIE model are motive, force, effort, task goal performance, and outcome attainment. A time lag between effort and outcome--or the performance-reward time lag--is hypothesized to affect motivational force in regard to expending effort to achieve an outcome. Research shows that the effectiveness of money as a reinforcer depends on its administration schedule.

Incorporating Time-Lag Effects Into the Expectancy Model of Motivation: A Reformulation of the Model