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. Snow reliability is a key climatic impact driver for theski tourism industry, although there are only a few studies addressing pastchanges in snow reliability in ski resorts accounting for snow managementpractices (grooming and snowmaking, in particular). This study provides anassessment of past changes in natural and managed snow cover reliabilityfrom 1961 to 2019 in the French Alps. In particular, we used snowmakinginvestment figures to infer the evolution of snowmaking coverage at the skiresort scale for 16 ski resorts in the French Alps, which we used togetherwith a detailed snow cover modelling system driven by a local atmosphericreanalysis. We find different benefits of snow management to reduce thevariability and long-term decrease in snow cover reliability because of theheterogeneity of the snowmaking deployment trajectories across ski resorts.The frequency of challenging conditions for ski resort operation over the1991–2019 period increased in November and February to April compared to the30-year reference period 1961–1990. In general, snowmaking had a positiveimpact on snow reliability, especially in December to January. While for thehighest-elevation ski resorts, snowmaking improved snow reliability for thecore of the winter season, it did not counterbalance the decreasing trend insnow cover reliability for lower-elevation ski resorts and in the spring.

Past changes in natural and managed snow reliability of French Alps ski resorts from 1961 to 2019