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Understanding of long-term dynamics of glaciers and ice caps is vital toassess their recent and future changes, yet few long-term reconstructionsusing ice flow models exist. Here we present simulations of the maritimeHardangerjøkulen ice cap in Norway from the mid-Holocene through theLittle Ice Age (LIA) to the present day, using a numerical ice flow modelcombined with glacier and climate reconstructions.  In our simulation, under a linear climate forcing, we find thatHardangerjøkulen grows from ice-free conditions in the mid-Holocene to itsmaximum extent during the LIA in a nonlinear, spatially asynchronousfashion. During its fastest stage of growth (2300–1300 BP), the ice captriples its volume in less than 1000 years. The modeled ice cap extent andoutlet glacier length changes from the LIA until today agree well withavailable observations.  Volume and area for Hardangerjøkulen and several of its outlet glaciersvary out-of-phase for several centuries during the Holocene. This volume–area disequilibrium varies in time and from one outlet glacier to the next, illustrating that linear relations between ice extent, volume and glacier proxy records, as generally used in paleoclimatic reconstructions, have only limited validity.  We also show that the present-day ice cap is highly sensitive to surface massbalance changes and that the effect of the ice cap hypsometry on the mass balance–altitude feedback is essential to this sensitivity. A mass balanceshift by +0.5 m w.e. relative to the mass balance from the last decadesalmost doubles ice volume, while a decrease of 0.2 m w.e. or more induces astrong mass balance–altitude feedback and makes Hardangerjøkulen disappearentirely. Furthermore, once disappeared, an additional +0.1 m w.e. relativeto the present mass balance is needed to regrow the ice cap to its present-dayextent. We expect that other ice caps with comparable geometry in, forexample, Norway, Iceland, Patagonia and peripheral Greenland may behave similarly, making them particularly vulnerable to climate change

Simulating the evolution of Hardangerjøkulen ice cap in southern Norway since the mid-Holocene and its sensitivity to climate change