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. We apply three-dimensional (3-D) thermo-mechanical numerical simulations of the shortening of the upper crustal region of a passive margin in order to investigate the control of 3-D laterally variable inherited structures on fold-and-thrust belt evolution and associated nappe formation. We consider tectonic inheritance by employing an initial model configuration with basement horst and graben structures having laterally variable geometry and with sedimentary layers having different mechanical strength. We use a visco-plastic rheology with a temperature-dependent flow law and a Drucker–Prager yield criterion. The models show the folding, detachment (shearing off) and horizontal transport of sedimentary units, which resemble structures of fold and thrust nappes. The models further show the stacking of nappes. The detachment of nappe-like structures is controlled by the initial basement and sedimentary layer geometry. Significant horizontal transport is facilitated by weak sedimentary units below these nappes. The initial half-graben geometry has a strong impact on the basement and sediment deformation. Generally, deeper half-grabens generate thicker nappes and stronger deformation of the neighbouring horst, while shallower half-grabens generate thinner nappes and less deformation in the horst. Horizontally continuous strong sediment layers, which are not restricted to initial graben structures, cause detachment (decollement) folding and not overthrusting. The amplitude of the detachment folds is controlled by the underlying graben geometry. A mechanically weaker basement favours the formation of fold nappes, while stronger basement favours thrust sheets. The model configuration is motivated by applying the 3-D model to the Helvetic nappe system of the Central Alps of France and Switzerland. Our model reproduces several first-order features of this nappe system, namely (1) closure of a half-graben and associated formation of the Morcles and Doldenhorn nappes, (2) overthrusting of a nappe resembling the Wildhorn and Glarus nappes, and (3) formation of a nappe pile resembling the Helvetic nappes resting above the Infrahelvetic complex.Furthermore, the finite strain pattern, temperature distribution and timing of the 3-D model is in broad agreement with data from the Helvetic nappe system. Our model, hence, provides a 3-D reconstruction of the first-order tectonic evolution of the Helvetic nappe system. Moreover, we do not apply any strain softening mechanisms. Strain localization, folding and nappe transport are controlled by initial geometrical and mechanical heterogeneities showing the fundamental importance of tectonic inheritance on fold-and-thrust belt evolution.

Control of 3-D tectonic inheritance on fold-and-thrust belts: insights from 3-D numerical models and application to the Helvetic nappe system