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Greenhouse-gas emissions have created a planetary energy imbalance that isprimarily manifested by increasing ocean heat content (OHC). Updatedobservational estimates of full-depth OHC change since 1970 are presentedthat account for recent advancements in reducing observation errors andbiases. The full-depth OHC has increased by 0.74 [0.68,0.80]  ×  1022 J yr−1 (0.46 Wm−2) and 1.22[1.16–1.29]  ×  1022 J yr−1 (0.75 Wm−2) for1970–2005 and 1992–2005, respectively, with a 5 to 95 % confidenceinterval of the median. The CMIP5 models show large spread in OHC changes,suggesting that some models are not state-of-the-art and require furtherimprovements. However, the ensemble median has excellent agreement with ourobservational estimate: 0.68 [0.54–0.82]  ×  1022 J yr−1(0.42 Wm−2) from 1970 to 2005 and 1.25[1.10–1.41]  ×  1022 J yr−1 (0.77 Wm−2) from 1992to 2005. These results increase confidence in both the observational andmodel estimates to quantify and study changes in Earth's energy imbalanceover the historical period. We suggest that OHC be a fundamental metric forclimate model validation and evaluation, especially for forced changes(decadal timescales)

Observed and simulated full-depth ocean heat-content changes for 1970–2005