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. Coastal flood hazard and exposure are expected toincrease over the course of the 21st century, leading to increased coastalflood risk. In order to limit the increase in future risk, or even reducecoastal flood risk, adaptation is necessary. Here, we present a framework toevaluate the future benefits and costs of structural protection measures atthe global scale, which accounts for the influence of different flood riskdrivers (namely sea-level rise, subsidence, and socioeconomic change).Globally, we find that the estimated expected annual damage (EAD) increasesby a factor of 150 between 2010 and 2080 if we assume that no adaptationtakes place. We find that 15 countries account for approximately 90 % ofthis increase. We then explore four different adaptation objectives and findthat they all show high potential in cost-effectively reducing (future)coastal flood risk at the global scale. Attributing the total costs foroptimal protection standards, we find that sea-level rise contributes themost to the total costs of adaptation. However, the other drivers also playan important role. The results of this study can be used to highlightpotential savings through adaptation at the global scale.

Global-scale benefit–cost analysis of coastal flood adaptation to different flood risk drivers using structural measures