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. Coastal areas face a significant risk of tsunami after a nearby heavyearthquake. Comprehensive coastal port cities often complicate and intensifythis risk due to the high vulnerability of their communities and liabilitiesassociated with secondary damage. Accessibility to tsunami shelters is a keymeasure of adaptive capacity in response to tsunami risks and shouldtherefore be enhanced. This study integrates the hazards that create riskinto two dimensions: hazard-product risk and hazard-affected risk.Specifically, the hazard-product risk measures the hazard occurrenceprobability, intensity, duration, and extension in a system. Thehazard-affected risk measures the extent to which the system is affected bythe hazard occurrence. This enables the study of specific strategies forresponding to each kind of risk to enhance accessibility to tsunamishelters. Nagoya city in Japan served as the case study: the city is one ofthe most advanced tsunami-resilient port cities in the world. The spatialdistribution of the hazard-product risk and hazard-affected risk was firstvisualized in 165 school district samples, covering 213 km 2 using a hot spot analysis. The results suggest that the rules governing the distributionof these two-dimensional (2-D) risks are significantly different. By refiningthe tsunami evacuation time–space routes, traffic-location-relatedindicators, referring to three-scale traffic patterns with three-hierarchytraffic roads, are used as accessibility variables. Two-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to analyse the differences in theseaccessibility variables to compare the 2-D risk. MANOVA was also used toassess the difference of accessibility between high-level risk and low-levelrisk in each risk dimension. The results show that tsunami shelteraccessibility strategies, targeting hazard-product risk and hazard-affectedrisk, are significantly different in Nagoya. These different strategies areneeded to adapt to the risk.

Strategies for increasing tsunami shelter accessibility to enhance hazard risk adaptive capacity in coastal port cities: a study of Nagoya city, Japan