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Coseismic avalanches and rockfalls, as well as their simultaneous air blastand muddy flow, which were induced by the 2015 Gorkha earthquake in Nepal,destroyed the village of Langtang. In order to reveal volume and structure ofthe deposit covering the village, as well as sequence of the multiple events,we conducted an intensive in situ observation in October 2015. Multitemporaldigital elevation models created from photographs taken by helicopter andunmanned aerial vehicles reveal that the deposit volumes of the primary andsucceeding events were 6.81 ± 1.54  ×  106 and0.84 ± 0.92  ×  106 m3, respectively. Visualinvestigations of the deposit and witness statements of villagers suggestthat the primary event was an avalanche composed mostly of snow, while thecollapsed glacier ice could not be dominant source for the total mass.Succeeding events were multiple rockfalls which may have been triggered byaftershocks. From the initial deposit volume and the area of the uppercatchment, we estimate an average snow depth of 1.82 ± 0.46 m in thesource area. This is consistent with anomalously large snow depths(1.28–1.52 m) observed at a neighboring glacier (4800–5100 m a.s.l.),which accumulated over the course of four major snowfall events betweenOctober 2014 and the earthquake on 25 April 2015. Considering long-termobservational data, probability density functions, and elevation gradients ofprecipitation, we conclude that this anomalous winter snow was an extremeevent with a return interval of at least 100 years. The anomalous wintersnowfall may have amplified the disastrous effects induced by the 2015 Gorkhaearthquake in Nepal

Anomalous winter-snow-amplified earthquake-induced disaster of the 2015 Langtang avalanche in Nepal