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In this paper we investigate the question not of how, but why people activelychoose to live with continued exposure to considerable hazard. A fieldsurvey of the human–volcano interaction at Bromo Volcano was based onsemi-structured interviews and focus group discussions. The recordedinterviews were transcribed and analysed according to recurrent themes inthe answers. Findings from field investigation were then confronted withprevious existing concepts of human exposure to natural hazards. The resultshows that the interaction between humans and the volcanic environment at Bromovolcano is multifaceted and complex. The Tengger people choose – ratherthan being forced – to live with volcanic hazards. They are not onlyexposed to its negative consequence, but also enjoy benefits andopportunities of physical, spiritual and socio-cultural nature that arisewithin the human–volcanic system. Following this perspective, the concept ofrisk itself must be revisited and expanded from a one-sided focus onhazardous processes to a more holistic view of risk that includes thevarious positive aspects that pertain to the entire system. The developmentof a generic human–volcanic system model could provide the basis for thedevelopment of an open-risk concept

The calamity of eruptions, or an eruption of benefits? Mt. Bromo human–volcano system a case study of an open-risk perception