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. Water recycled through transpiring forests influences thespatial distribution of precipitation in the Amazon and has been shown toplay a role in the initiation of the wet season. However, due to thechallenges and costs associated with measuring evapotranspiration (ET)directly and high uncertainty in remote-sensingET retrievals, the spatial and temporal patterns in Amazon ET remain poorlyunderstood. In this study, we estimated ET over the Amazon and 10sub-basins using a catchment-balance approach, whereby ET is calculateddirectly as the balance between precipitation, runoff, and change ingroundwater storage. We compared our results with ET from remote-sensingdatasets, reanalysis, models from Phase 5 and Phase 6 of the Coupled ModelIntercomparison Projects (CMIP5 and CMIP6 respectively), and in situ flux tower measurements to provide a comprehensive overview of current understanding. Catchment-balance analysis revealed a gradient in ET from east to west/southwest across the Amazon Basin, a strong seasonal cycle inbasin-mean ET primarily controlled by net incoming radiation, and no trendin ET over the past 2 decades. This approach has a degree of uncertainty,due to errors in each of the terms of the water budget; therefore, weconducted an error analysis to identify the range of likely values.Satellite datasets, reanalysis, and climate models all tended to overestimatethe magnitude of ET relative to catchment-balance estimates, underestimateseasonal and interannual variability, and show conflicting positive andnegative trends. Only two out of six satellite and model datasets analysedreproduced spatial and seasonal variation in Amazon ET, and captured thesame controls on ET as indicated by catchment-balance analysis. CMIP5 andCMIP6 ET was inconsistent with catchment-balance estimates over all scalesanalysed. Overall, the discrepancies between data products and modelsrevealed by our analysis demonstrate a need for more ground-based ETmeasurements in the Amazon as well as a need to substantially improve modelrepresentation of this fundamental component of the Amazon hydrologicalcycle.

Evapotranspiration in the Amazon: spatial patterns, seasonality, and recent trends in observations, reanalysis, and climate models