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. Snowmelt is a major source of groundwater recharge incold regions. Throughout many landscapes snowmelt occurs when the ground isstill frozen; thus frozen soil processes play an important role in snowmeltrouting, and, by extension, the timing and magnitude of recharge. This studyinvestigated the vadose zone dynamics governing snowmelt infiltration andgroundwater recharge at three grassland sites in the Canadian Prairies overthe winter and spring of 2017. The region is characterized by numeroustopographic depressions where the ponding of snowmelt runoff results in focusedinfiltration and recharge. Water balance estimates showed infiltration wasthe dominant sink (35 %–85 %) of snowmelt under uplands (i.e. areas outsideof depressions), even when the ground was frozen, with soil moisture responsesindicating flow through the frozen layer. The refreezing of infiltratedmeltwater during winter melt events enhanced runoff generation in subsequentmelt events. At one site, time lags of up to 3 d between snow coverdepletion on uplands and ponding in depressions demonstrated the role of ashallow subsurface transmission pathway or interflow through frozen soil inrouting snowmelt from uplands to depressions. At all sites,depression-focused infiltration and recharge began before complete groundthaw and a significant portion (45 %–100 %) occurred while the ground waspartially frozen. Relatively rapid infiltration rates and non-sequentialsoil moisture and groundwater responses, observed prior to ground thaw,indicated preferential flow through frozen soils. The preferential flowdynamics are attributed to macropore networks within the grassland soils,which allow infiltrated meltwater to bypass portions of the frozen soilmatrix and facilitate both the lateral transport of meltwater betweentopographic positions and groundwater recharge through frozen ground. Bothof these flow paths may facilitate preferential mass transport togroundwater.

Effects of preferential flow on snowmelt partitioning and groundwater recharge in frozen soils