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. Rivers are not isolated systems but interact continuously with groundwaterfrom their confined headwaters to their wide lowland floodplains. In the lastfew decades, research on the hyporheic zone (HZ) has increased appreciationof the hydrological importance and ecological significance of connected riverand groundwater systems. While recent studies have investigated hydrological,biogeochemical and ecohydrological processes in the HZ at bedformand reach scales, a comprehensive understanding of process-based interactionsbetween factors operating at different spatial and temporal scales drivinghyporheic exchange flows (HEFs) at reach scale and larger is still missing.Therefore, this review summarizes the factors and processes at catchment,valley, and reach scales that interact to control spatial and temporalvariations in hyporheic exchange flows. By using a multi-scale perspective,this review connects field observations and modelling studies to identify theprocess driving patterns and dynamics of HEF. Finally, the influence ofprocess interactions over multiple spatial scales is illustrated in a casestudy, supported by new GIS analyses, which highlights the importance ofvalley-scale factors to the expression of HEF at the reach scale. Thisconceptual framework will aid the development of approaches to interprethyporheic exchange across scales, infer scaling relationships, and informcatchment management decisions.

Toward a conceptual framework of hyporheic exchange across spatial scales