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Tracer-aided hydrological models are increasingly used to reveal fundamentals\udof runoff generation processes and water travel times in catchments.\udModelling studies integrating stable water isotopes as tracers are mostly\udbased in temperate and warm climates, leaving catchments with strong snow\udinfluences underrepresented in the literature. Such catchments are\udchallenging, as the isotopic tracer signals in water entering the catchments\udas snowmelt are typically distorted from incoming precipitation due to\udfractionation processes in seasonal snowpack.\ud  \udWe used the  Spatially distributed\udTracer-Aided Rainfall–Runoff (STARR) model\udto simulate fluxes, storage, and mixing of water and tracers, as well\udas estimating water ages in three long-term experimental catchments with\udvarying degrees of snow influence and contrasting landscape characteristics.\udIn the context of northern catchments the sites have exceptionally long and\udrich data sets of hydrometric data and – most importantly – stable water\udisotopes for both rain and snow conditions. To adapt the STARR model for\udsites with strong snow influence, we used a novel parsimonious calculation\udscheme that takes into account the isotopic fractionation through snow\udsublimation and snowmelt.\ud  \udThe modified STARR setup simulated the streamflows, isotope ratios, and snow\udpack dynamics quite well in all three catchments. From this, our simulations\udindicated contrasting median water ages and water age distributions between\udcatchments brought about mainly by differences in topography and soil\udcharacteristics. However, the variable degree of snow influence in\udcatchments also had a major influence on the stream hydrograph, storage\uddynamics, and water age distributions, which was captured by the model. Our\udstudy suggested that snow sublimation fractionation processes can be\udimportant to include in tracer-aided modelling for catchments with seasonal\udsnowpack, while the influence of fractionation during snowmelt could not be\udunequivocally shown. Our work showed the utility of isotopes to provide a\udproof of concept for our modelling framework in snow-influenced catchments

hydrology and earth system sciences

Using isotopes to constrain water flux and age estimates in snow-influenced catchments using the STARR (Spatially distributed Tracer-Aided Rainfall–Runoff) model