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The response of vegetation systems to the long-term changes in\udclimate, hydrology, and social–economic conditions in river basins is\udcritical for sustainable river basin management. This study aims to\udinvestigate the evolution of natural and crop vegetation systems in the Heihe\udRiver basin (HRB) over the past 2000 years. Archived Landsat images,\udhistorical land use maps and hydrological records were introduced to derive\udthe long-term spatial distribution of natural and crop vegetation and the\udcorresponding biomass levels. The major findings are that (1) both natural\udand crop vegetation experienced three development stages: a pre-development\udstage (before the Republic of China), a rapid development stage (Republic of\udChina – 2000), and a post-development stage (after 2000). Climate and\udhydrological conditions did not show significant impacts over crop\udvegetation, while streamflow presented synchronous changes with natural\udvegetation in the first stage. For the second stage, warmer temperature and\udincreasing streamflow were found to be important factors for the increase in\udboth natural and crop vegetation in the middle reaches of the HRB. For the\udthird stage, positive climate and hydrological conditions, together with\udpolicy interventions, supported the overall vegetation increase in both the\udmiddle and lower HRB; (2) there was a significantly faster increase in crop\udbiomass than that of native vegetation since 1949, which could be explained\udby the technological development; and (3) the ratio of natural vegetation to\udcrop vegetation decreased from 16 during the Yuan Dynasty to about 2.2\udsince 2005. This ratio reflects the reaction of land and water development to\uda changing climate and altering social–economic conditions at the river\udbasin level; therefore, it could be used as an indicator of water and land\udmanagement at river basins

Evolution of the vegetation system in the Heihe River basin in the last 2000 years