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. The complexity of the state-of-the-art climate modelsrequires high computational resources and imposes rather simplifiedparameterization of inland waters. The effect of lakes and reservoirs on thelocal and regional climate is commonly parameterized in regional or globalclimate modeling as a function of surface water temperature estimated byatmosphere-coupled one-dimensional lake models. The latter typically neglectone of the major transport mechanisms specific to artificial reservoirs:heat and mass advection due to inflows and outflows. Incorporation of theseessentially two-dimensional processes into lake parameterizations requires atrade-off between computational efficiency and physical soundness, which isaddressed in this study. We evaluated the performance of the two most usedlake parameterization schemes and a machine-learning approach onhigh-resolution historical water temperature records from 24 reservoirs.Simulations were also performed at both variable and constant water level toexplore the thermal structure differences between lakes and reservoirs. Ourresults highlight the need to include anthropogenic inflow and outflowcontrols in regional and global climate models. Our findings also highlightthe efficiency of the machine-learning approach, which may overperformprocess-based physical models in both accuracy and computationalrequirements if applied to reservoirs with long-term observationsavailable. Overall, results suggest that the combined use of process-basedphysical models and machine-learning models will considerably improve themodeling of air–lake heat and moisture fluxes. A relationship between meanwater retention times and the importance of inflows and outflows isestablished: reservoirs with a retention time shorter than ∼ 100 d, if simulated without inflow and outflow effects, tend to exhibit astatistically significant deviation in the computed surface temperaturesregardless of their morphological characteristics.

Modeling reservoir surface temperatures for regional and global climate models: a multi-model study on the inflow and level variation effects