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. Backwater effects in surface water streams and onadjacent lowland areas caused by mostly complex drainage and flow controlstructures are not directly computed with hydrological approaches yet. Asolution to this weakness in hydrological modelling is presented in thisarticle. The developed method enables transfer of discharges into waterlevels and calculation of backwater volume routing along streams and adjacentlowland areas by balancing water level slopes. The implemented and evaluatedmethod extends the application of hydrological models for rainfall–runoffsimulations of backwater-affected catchments with the advantages of (1)modelling complex flow control systems in tidal backwater-affected lowlands,(2) less effort to parameterise river streams, (3) directly defined inputfactors of driving forces (climate change and urbanisation) and (4) runtimereduction of 1 to 2 orders of magnitude in comparison to coupledhydrodynamic models. The developed method is implemented in the open-sourcerainfall–runoff model Kalypso-NA (4.0). Evaluation results show theapplicability of the model for simulating rainfall–runoff regimes andbackwater effects in an exemplary lowland catchment (Hamburg, Germany) witha complex flow control system and where the drainage is influenced by atidal range of about 4 m. The proposed method is applicable to answer a widescope of hydrological and water management questions, e.g. water balances,flood forecasts and effectiveness of flood mitigation measures. It isre-usable to other hydrological numerical models, which apply conceptualhydrological flood-routing approaches (e.g. Muskingum–Cunge orKalinin–Miljukov).

geoscientific model development

Computation of backwater effects in surface waters of lowland catchments including control structures – an efficient and re-usable method implemented in the hydrological open-source model Kalypso-NA (4.0)