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. The amount of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface can be highlydetermined by atmospheric aerosols, which have been pointed to as the most uncertain climateforcing agents through their direct (scattering and absorption), semi-direct(absorption implying a thermodynamic effect on clouds) and indirect (modification of cloudproperties when aerosols act as cloud condensation nuclei)effects. Nonetheless, regional climate models hardly ever dynamically modelthe atmospheric concentration of aerosols and their interactions withradiation (ARIs) and clouds (ACIs). The objective of this work is to evincethe role of modeling ARIs and ACIs in Weather Research and Forecast (WRF)model simulations with fully interactive aerosols (online resolvedconcentrations) with a focus on summer mean surface downward solar radiation(RSDS) over Europe. Under historical conditions (1991–2010), both ARIs andACIs reduce RSDS by a few percentage points over central and northernregions. This reduction is larger when only ARIs are resolved, while ACIscounteract the effect of the former by up to half. The response of RSDS tothe activation of ARIs and ACIs is mainly led by the aerosol effect oncloud coverage, while the aerosol effect on atmospheric optical depthplays a very minor role, which evinces the importance of semi-direct andindirect aerosol effects. In fact, differences in RSDS among experimentswith and without aerosols are smaller under clear-sky conditions. In terms offuture projections (2031–2050 vs. 1991–2010), the baseline pattern (from anexperiment without aerosols) shows positive signals southward and negativesignals northward. While ARIs enhance the former and reduce the latter, ACIswork in the opposite direction and provide a flatter RSDS change pattern,further evincing the opposite impact from semi-direct and indirect effectsand the nontrivial influence of the latter.

geoscientific model development

Sensitivity of surface solar radiation to aerosol–radiation and aerosol–cloud interactions over Europe in WRFv3.6.1 climatic runs with fully interactive aerosols