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. General circulation model (GCM) evaluation using ground-based observationsis complicated by inconsistencies in hydrometeor and phase definitions. Herewe describe (GO) 2 -SIM, a forward simulator designed for objectivehydrometeor-phase evaluation, and assess its performance over the NorthSlope of Alaska using a 1-year GCM simulation. For uncertainty assessment,18 empirical relationships are used to convert model grid-averagehydrometeor (liquid and ice, cloud, and precipitation) water contents tozenith polarimetric micropulse lidar and Ka-band Doppler radar measurements,producing an ensemble of 576 forward-simulation realizations. Sensorlimitations are represented in forward space to objectively remove fromconsideration model grid cells with undetectable hydrometeor mixing ratios,some of which may correspond to numerical noise. Phase classification in forward space is complicated by the inability ofsensors to measure ice and liquid signals distinctly. However, signaturesexist in lidar–radar space such that thresholds on observables can beobjectively estimated and related to hydrometeor phase. Theproposed phase-classification technique leads to misclassification in fewer than 8 % ofhydrometeor-containing grid cells. Such misclassifications arise because,while the radar is capable of detecting mixed-phase conditions, it canmistake water- for ice-dominated layers. However, applying the sameclassification algorithm to forward-simulated and observed fields shouldgenerate hydrometeor-phase statistics with similar uncertainty.Alternatively, choosing to disregard how sensors define hydrometeor phaseleads to frequency of occurrence discrepancies of up to 40 %. So, whilehydrometeor-phase maps determined in forward space are very different frommodel “reality” they capture the information sensors can provide andthereby enable objective model evaluation.

geoscientific model development

(GO)&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;2&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;-SIM: a GCM-oriented ground-observation forward-simulator framework for objective evaluation of cloud and precipitation phase