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. Sensor-to-sensor variability is a source of error common to allgeoscientific instruments that needs to be assessed before comparative andapplied research can be performed with multiple sensors. Consistency amongsensor systems is especially critical when subtle features of the surroundingterrain are to be identified. Cosmic-ray neutron sensors (CRNSs) are a recenttechnology used to monitor hectometre-scale environmental waterstorages, for which a rigorous comparison study of numerous co-locatedsensors has not yet been performed. In this work, nine stationary CRNS probesof type “CRS1000” were installed in relative proximity on a grass patchsurrounded by trees, buildings, and sealed areas. While the dynamics of theneutron count rates were found to be similar, offsets of a few percent fromthe absolute average neutron count rates were found. Technical adjustments ofthe individual detection parameters brought all instruments into goodagreement. Furthermore, we found a critical integration time of 6 h abovewhich all sensors showed consistent dynamics in the data and their RMSE fellbelow 1 % of gravimetric water content. The residual differences betweenthe nine signals indicated local effects of the complex urban terrain on thescale of several metres. Mobile CRNS measurements and spatial simulationswith the URANOS neutron transport code in the surrounding area (25 ha)have revealed substantial sub-footprint heterogeneity to which CRNS detectorsare sensitive despite their large averaging volume. The sealed and constantlydry structures in the footprint furthermore damped the dynamics of the CRNS-derived soil moisture. We developed strategies to correct for the sealed-areaeffect based on theoretical insights about the spatial sensitivity of thesensor. This procedure not only led to reliable soil moisture estimationduring dry-out periods, it further revealed a strong signal of interceptedwater that emerged over the sealed surfaces during rain events. The presentedarrangement offered a unique opportunity to demonstrate the CRNS performancein complex terrain, and the results indicated great potential for furtherapplications in urban climate research.

Intercomparison of cosmic-ray neutron sensors and water balance monitoring in an urban environment