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. Urban centres worldwide are adversely affected by flooding and air pollution.Better-prepared citizens are crucial to limiting the impacts of thesehazards, and both lay knowledge and personal experiences are important incomplementing and challenging expert opinion. For the first time, this studyoffers a critical comparison of how different two-way communication formatshave been used worldwide between experts and the public in relation toflooding and air pollution risk. Through a systematic review, we analysesocial media, educational programmes, serious games, citizen science, andforums in terms of their effectiveness in respect of dealing with incidents,raising awareness, and promoting knowledge exchange in the context offlooding and air pollution risk. We find that there is neither aone-size-fits-all nor superior format of communication. No single format iseffective in fulfilling all three communication purposes. All five formatsanalysed appear to be successful under different circumstances and are neversuitable for all segments of the population. Communication between experts andthe public is difficult and full of tensions; information alone is notenough. Our study shows different ways of incorporating strategies to buildtrust between experts and the public and make communication more fun andaccessible, breaking down hierarchies and creating safe spaces forco-creation where everyone feels empowered to participate and everyone benefits.

Building bridges between experts and the public: a comparison of two-way communication formats for flooding and air pollution risk