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. Controlled experiments were performed to investigate the acoustic signal response of the Swiss plate geophone (SPG) system impacted by bedload particles varying in size, impact angle, and transport mode. The impacts of bedload particles moving by saltation, rolling, and sliding were determined by analyzing the experimental videos and corresponding vibration signals. The finite element method (FEM) was utilized to construct a numerical model of the SPG system and to simulate the signals triggered by a quartz sphere hitting the plate at impact angles ranging from 0∘ to 90∘. For a particle impact on the bed or on the geophone plates, the signature of the generated signal in terms of maximum amplitude, number of impulses, and centroid frequency was extracted from the raw monitoring data. So-called signal packets were determined by performing a Hilbert transform of the raw signal. The number of packets was calculated for each transport mode and for each particle size class, with sizes ranging from 28.1 to 171.5 mm. The results show how the number of signal impulses per particle mass, the amplitude of the signal envelope, and the centroid frequency change with increasing particle size, and they also demonstrate the effect of bedload transport mode on the signal response of the SPG system. We found that there is a general increase in the strength of the signal response or in the centroid frequency when the transport mode changes from sliding to rolling to saltation. The findings of this study help us to better understand the signal responses of the SPG system for different bedload transport modes, and may also contribute to an improvement of the procedure to determine bedload particle size from the SPG signal.

Signal response of the Swiss plate geophone monitoring system impacted by bedload particles with different transport modes