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. The East Asian winter monsoon causes orographic snowfall over the windward side of the Japanese islands (facing the Sea of Japan and the northwesterly winter monsoon flow) and negative temperature anomalies around Japan. Daily weather information recorded in old Japanese diaries can provide useful information on the historical occurrences of snowfall days. Here, this information was combined with recently recoveredearly daily instrumental temperature data collected during the 19th centuryto reconstruct the occurrence of winter monsoon outbreak days (WMDs) fromthe 1840s to the early 1850s in Japan. Analyses of interannual andintra-seasonal variations in WMDs revealed active winter monsoon outbreaksin the early 1840s. In 1840/41 and 1841/42, these synchronously occurredwith extreme snow events reported in central and southern China. However,winter monsoon outbreaks were absent during the middle to late winters of themid-1840s and 1853/1854. Freezing records of Lake Suwa in central Japanshowed that it did not freeze during 1844/1845 and 1853/1854, which was inagreement with our finding of inactive winter monsoons in these years.Comparing the occurrences of WMDs with early instrumental surface pressuredata revealed that WMDs were associated with the active phases of the winter monsoon, as represented by an east–west surface pressure gradient over East Asia.

climate of the past

Analysis of early Japanese meteorological data and historical weather documents to reconstruct the winter climate between the 1840s and the early 1850s