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. Publications on temperate deciduous tree refugia in Europe are abundant, butlittle is known about the patterns of temperate tree refugia in easternAsia, an area where biodiversity survived Quaternary glaciations and whichhas the world's most diverse temperate flora. Our goal is to compare climatemodel simulations with pollen data in order to establish the location ofglacial refugia during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Limits inwhich temperate deciduous trees can survive are taken from the literature.The model outputs are first tested for the present by comparing climatemodels with published modern pollen data. As this method turned out to besatisfactory for the present, the same approach was used for the LGM.Climate model simulations (ECHAM5 T106), statistically further downscaled,are used to infer the temperate deciduous tree distribution during the LGM.These were compared with available fossil temperate tree pollen occurrences. The impact of the LGM on the eastern Asian climate was much weaker than onthe European climate. The area of possible tree growth shifts only by about2∘ to the south between the present and the LGM. This contributesto explaining the greater biodiversity of forests in eastern Asia compared toEurope. Climate simulations and the available, although fractional, fossilpollen data agree. Therefore, climate estimations can safely be used to fillareas without pollen data by mapping potential refugia distributions. Theresults show two important areas with population connectivity: the YellowSea emerged shelf and the southern Himalayas. These two areas were suitablefor temperate deciduous tree growth, providing corridors for populationmigration and connectivity (i.e. less population fragmentation) in glacialperiods. Many tree populations live in interglacial refugia, not glacialones. The fact that the model simulation for the LGM fits so well withobserved pollen distribution is another indication that the model used isgood enough to also simulate the LGM period.

climate of the past

Climate simulations and pollen data reveal the distribution and connectivity of temperate tree populations in eastern Asia during the Last Glacial Maximum