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. In the northeast of the Iberian Peninsula, few studies have reconstructeddrought occurrence and variability for the pre-instrumental period usingdocumentary evidence and natural proxies. In this study, we compiled aunique dataset of rogation ceremonies – religious acts asking God for rain –from 13 cities in the northeast of Spain and investigated the annualdrought variability from 1650 to 1899 CE. Three regionally differentcoherent areas (Mediterranean, Ebro Valley, and Mountain) were detected. Boththe Barcelona and the regional Mediterranean drought indices were comparedwith the instrumental series of Barcelona for the overlapping period(1787–1899), where we discovered a highly significant and stable correlationwith the Standardized Precipitation Index of May with a 4-month lag( r = - 0.46 and r = - 0.53 ; p , respectively). We found commonperiods with prolonged droughts (during the mid and late 18th century)and extreme drought years (1775, 1798, 1753, 1691, and 1817) associated withmore atmospheric blocking situations. A superposed epoch analysis (SEA) wasperformed showing a significant decrease in drought events 1 year afterthe volcanic events, which might be explained by the decrease inevapotranspiration due to reduction in surface temperatures and,consequently, the higher availability of water that increases soil moisture.In addition, we discovered a common and significant drought response in thethree regional drought indices 2 years after the Tambora volcaniceruption. Our study suggests that documented information on rogation ceremoniescontains important independent evidence to reconstruct extreme droughtevents in areas and periods for which instrumental information and otherproxies are scarce. However, drought index for the mountainous areas (denoted Mountain later in the text) presentsvarious limitations and its interpretation must be treated with caution.

Rogation ceremonies: a key to understanding past drought variability in northeastern Spain since 1650