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. Previous studies show that the evolution of global meantemperature forced by the total forcing is almost the same as the sum of individual orbital, ice sheet, greenhouse gas and meltwater single forcing runs in the last 12 000 years in three independent climate models:Community Climate System Model 3 (CCSM3), Fast Met Office/UK Universities Simulator (FAMOUS) and Loch-Vecode-Ecbilt-Clio-Agism Model (LOVECLIM). This validity of the linear response is usefulbecause it simplifies the interpretation of the climate evolution. However,it has remained unclear if this linear response is valid on other spatialand temporal scales and, if valid, in what regions. Here, using a set ofTraCE-21ka (Simulation of the Transient Climate of the Last 21,000 Years) climate simulations, the spatial and temporal dependence of thelinear response of the surface temperature evolution in the Holocene isassessed approximately using the correlation coefficient and a linear errorindex. The results show that the response of global mean temperature isalmost linear on orbital, millennial and centennial scales in the Holocene but not on a decadal scale. The linear response differs significantly betweenthe Northern Hemisphere (NH) and Southern Hemisphere (SH). In the NH, theresponse is almost linear on a millennial scale, while in the SH the responseis almost linear on an orbital scale. Furthermore, at regional scales, thelinear responses differ substantially between the orbital, millennial,centennial and decadal timescales. On an orbital scale, the linear response isdominant for most regions, even in a small area of a midsize country likeGermany. On a millennial scale, the response is still approximately linear inthe NH over many regions. Relatively, the linear response is degeneratedsomewhat over most regions in the SH. On the centennial and decadaltimescales, the response is no longer linear in almost all the regions. Theregions where the response is linear on the millennial scale are mostlyconsistent with those on the orbital scale, notably western Eurasian, NorthAfrica, subtropical North Pacific, the tropical Atlantic and the Indian Ocean,likely causing a large signal-to-noise ratio over these regions. Thisfinding will be helpful for improving our understanding of the regionalclimate response to various climate forcing factors in the Holocene,especially on orbital and millennial scales.

Holocene temperature response to external forcing: assessing the linear response and its spatial and temporal dependence