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. The mid-Holocene period (MH) has long been an ideal target for the validationof general circulation model (GCM) results against reconstructions gathered inglobal datasets. These studies aim to test GCM sensitivity, mainly toseasonal changes induced by the orbital parameters (longitude of theperihelion). Despite widespread agreement between model results and data onthe MH climate, some important differences still exist. There is no consensuson the continental size (the area of the temperature anomaly) of the MHthermal climate response, which makes regional quantitative reconstructioncritical to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the MH climate patterns.Here, we compare the annual and seasonal outputs from the most recentPaleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project Phase 3 (PMIP3) models with anupdated synthesis of climate reconstruction over China, including, for thefirst time, a seasonal cycle of temperature and precipitation. Our resultsindicate that the main discrepancies between model and data for the MHclimate are the annual and winter mean temperature. A warmer-than-presentclimate condition is derived from pollen data for both annual meantemperature ( ∼0.7  K on average) and winter mean temperature( ∼1  K on average), while most of the models provide bothcolder-than-present annual and winter mean temperature and a relativelywarmer summer, showing a linear response driven by the seasonal forcing. Byconducting simulations in BIOME4 and CESM, we show that surface processesare the key factors creating the uncertainties between models and data. Theseresults pinpoint the crucial importance of including the non-linear responsesof the surface water and energy balance to vegetation changes.

Mid-Holocene climate change over China: model–data discrepancy