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. The response of the Australian monsoon to external forcings and relatedmechanisms during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) are investigated bymulti-model experiments in CMIP5–PMIP3. Although the annual meanprecipitation over the Australian monsoon region decreases, the annual range,or the monsoonality, is enhanced. The precipitation increases in earlyaustral summer and decreases in austral winter, resulting in the amplifiedannual range, but the main contribution comes from the decreasedprecipitation in austral winter. The decreased winter precipitation isprimarily caused by weakened upward motion, although reduced water vapor also hasa moderate contribution. The weakened upward motion is induced by theenhanced land–sea thermal contrast, which intensifies the divergence overnorthern Australia. The increased Australian monsoon rainfall in earlysummer, however, is an integrated result of the positive effect oflocal dynamic processes (enhanced moisture convergence) and the negativeeffect of thermodynamics (reduced moisture content). The enhanced moistureconvergence is caused by two factors: the strengthened northwest–southeastthermal contrast between the cooler Indochina–western Indonesia and thewarmer northeastern Australia, and the east–west sea surface temperaturegradients between the warmer western Pacific and cooler eastern Indian Ocean,both due to the alteration of land–sea configuration arising from the sealevel drop. The enhanced Australian monsoonality in the LGM is not associatedwith global-scale circulation change such as the shift of the Intertropical Convergence Zone; rather,it is mainly due to the change of regional circulations around Australiaarising from the changes in land–sea contrast and the east–west SSTgradients over the Indian and western Pacific oceans. This finding should be takeninto account when investigating its future change under global warming. Ourfindings may also explain why proxy records indicate different changes inAustralian monsoon precipitation during the LGM.

Understanding the Australian Monsoon change during the Last Glacial Maximum with a multi-model ensemble