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. In Southeast Asia, oil palm (OP) plantations have largely replacedtropical forests. The impact of this shift in land use on greenhouse gas(GHG) fluxes remains highly uncertain, mainly due to a relatively small poolof available data. The aim of this study is to quantify differences ofnitrous oxide (N 2 O) and methane (CH 4 ) fluxes as well as soilcarbon dioxide (CO 2 ) respiration rates from logged forests, oil palmplantations of different ages, and an adjacent small riparian area. Nitrousoxide fluxes are the focus of this study, as these emissions are expected toincrease significantly due to the nitrogen (N) fertilizer application in theplantations. This study was conducted in the SAFE (Stability of AlteredForest Ecosystems) landscape in Malaysian Borneo (Sabah) with measurementsevery 2 months over a 2-year period. GHG fluxes were measured by staticchambers together with key soil physicochemical parameters and microbialbiodiversity. At all sites, N 2 O fluxes were spatially and temporallyhighly variable. On average the largest fluxes (incl. 95 % CI) were measuredfrom OP plantations (45.1 (24.0–78.5)  µ g m −2  h −1  N 2 O-N), slightly smaller fluxes from the riparian area (29.4 (2.8–84.7)  µ g m −2  h −1  N 2 O-N), and the smallest fluxes from logged forests(16.0 (4.0–36.3)  µ g m −2  h −1  N 2 O-N). Methane fluxeswere generally small (mean  ±  SD): − 2.6  ±  17.2  µ g CH 4 -C m −2  h −1 for OP and 1.3  ±  12.6  µ g CH 4 -C m −2  h −1 for riparian, with the range of measured CH 4 fluxesbeing largest in logged forests (2.2  ±  48.3  µ g CH 4 -C m −2  h −1 ). Soil respiration rates were larger from riparian areas(157.7  ±  106 mg m −2  h −1  CO 2 -C) and logged forests(137.4  ±  95 mg m −2  h −1  CO 2 -C) than OP plantations(93.3  ±  70 mg m −2  h −1  CO 2 -C) as a result of largeramounts of decomposing leaf litter. Microbial communities were distinctlydifferent between the different land-use types and sites. Bacterialcommunities were linked to soil pH, and fungal and eukaryotic communities were linked toland use. Despite measuring a large number of environmental parameters,mixed models could only explain up to 17 % of the variance of measuredfluxes for N 2 O, 3 % of CH 4 , and 25 % of soil respiration.Scaling up measured N 2 O fluxes to Sabah using land areas for forest andOP resulted in emissions increasing from 7.6 Mt (95 % confidence interval, − 3.0–22.3 Mt) yr −1 in 1973 to 11.4 Mt (0.2–28.6 Mt) yr −1 in 2015 dueto the increasing area of forest converted to OP plantations over the last ∼  40 years.

Comparison of greenhouse gas fluxes from tropical forests and oil palm plantations on mineral soil