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Dune development along highly dynamic land–sea boundaries is the result of\udinteraction between vegetation and dune size with sedimentation and erosion\udprocesses. Disentangling the contribution of vegetation characteristics from\udthat of dune size would improve predictions of nebkha dune development under\uda changing climate, but has proven difficult due to the scarcity of spatially\udcontinuous monitoring data.\ud \udThis study explored the contributions of vegetation and dune size to dune\uddevelopment for locations differing in shelter from the sea. We monitored a\udnatural nebkha dune field of 8 ha, along the coast of the island Texel,\udthe Netherlands, for 1 year using an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) with\udcamera. After constructing a digital surface model and orthomosaic we derived\udfor each dune (1) vegetation characteristics (species composition, vegetation\uddensity, and maximum vegetation height), (2) dune size (dune volume, area,\udand maximum height), (3) degree of shelter (proximity to other nebkha dunes\udand the sheltering by the foredune). Changes in dune volume over summer and\udwinter were related to vegetation, dune size and degree of shelter.\ud \udWe found that a positive change in dune volume (dune growth) was linearly\udrelated to initial dune volume over summer but not over winter. Big dunes\udaccumulated more sand than small dunes due to their larger surface area.\udExposed dunes increased more in volume (0.81 % per dune per week) than\udsheltered dunes (0.2 % per dune per week) over summer, while the opposite\udoccurred over winter. Vegetation characteristics did not significantly affect\uddune growth in summer, but did significantly affect dune growth in winter.\udOver winter, dunes dominated by Ammophila arenaria, a grass species\udwith high vegetation density throughout the year, increased more in volume\udthan dunes dominated by Elytrigia juncea, a grass species with lower\udvegetation density (0.43 vs. 0.42 (m3 m−3) week−1). The\udeffect of species was irrespective of dune size or distance to the sea.\ud \udOur results show that dune growth in summer is mainly determined by dune\udsize, whereas in winter dune growth was determined by vegetation type. In our\udstudy area the growth of exposed dunes was likely restricted by storm\uderosion, whereas growth of sheltered dunes was restricted by sand supply.\udOur results can be used to improve models predicting coastal dune\uddevelopment

Exploring the contributions of vegetation and dune size to early dune development using unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) imaging