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Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) and rubber\ud(Hevea brasiliensis) plantations cover large areas of former\udrainforest in Sumatra, Indonesia, supplying the global demand for these\udcrops. Although forest conversion is known to influence soil nitrous oxide\ud(N2O) and nitric oxide (NO) fluxes, measurements from oil palm and\udrubber plantations are scarce (for N2O) or nonexistent (for NO). Our\udstudy aimed to (1) quantify changes in soil–atmosphere fluxes of\udN oxides with forest\udconversion to rubber and oil palm plantations and (2) determine their\udcontrolling factors. In Jambi, Sumatra, we selected two landscapes that\udmainly differed in texture but were both on heavily weathered soils: loam and\udclay Acrisol soils. Within each landscape, we investigated lowland forests,\udrubber trees interspersed in secondary forest (termed as <q>jungle rubber</q>),\udboth as reference land uses and smallholder rubber and oil palm plantations\udas converted land uses. In the loam Acrisol landscape, we conducted a\udfollow-on study in a large-scale oil palm plantation (called PTPN VI) for\udcomparison of soil N2O fluxes with smallholder oil palm plantations.\udLand-use conversion to smallholder plantations had no effect on soil N-oxide\udfluxes (P = 0. 58 to 0.76) due to the generally low soil N availability in\udthe reference land uses that further decreased with land-use conversion. Soil\udN2O fluxes from the large-scale oil palm plantation did not differ with\udthose from smallholder plantations (P = 0. 15). Over 1-year measurements,\udthe temporal patterns of soil N-oxide fluxes were influenced by soil mineral\udN and water contents. Across landscapes, annual soil N2O emissions were\udcontrolled by gross nitrification and sand content, which also suggest the\udinfluence of soil N and water availability. Soil N2O fluxes\ud(µg N m−2 h−1) were 7 ± 2 to 14 ± 7\ud(reference land uses), 6 ± 3 to 9 ± 2 (rubber), 12 ± 3 to\ud12 ± 6 (smallholder oil palm) and 42 ± 24 (large-scale oil palm).\udSoil NO fluxes (µg N m−2 h−1) were −0.6 ± 0.7\udto 5.7 ± 5.8 (reference land uses), −1.2 ± 0.5 to\ud−1.0 ± 0.2 (rubber) and −0.2 ± 1.2 to 0.7 ± 0.7\ud(smallholder oil palm). To improve the estimate of soil N-oxide fluxes from\udoil palm plantations in this region, studies should focus on large-scale\udplantations (which usually have 2 to 4 times higher N fertilization rates\udthan smallholders) with frequent measurements following fertilizer\udapplication

Soil nitrogen oxide fluxes from lowland forests converted to smallholder rubber and oil palm plantations in Sumatra, Indonesia