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Abstract. Low concentrations of ice-nucleating particles (INPs) are thought to beimportant for the properties of mixed-phase clouds, but their detection ischallenging. Hence, there is a need for instruments where INP concentrationsof less than 0.01 L −1 can be routinely and efficiently determined. Theuse of larger volumes of suspension in drop assays increases the sensitivityof an experiment to rarer INPs or rarer active sites due to the increase inaerosol or surface area of particulates per droplet. Here we describe andcharacterise the InfraRed-Nucleation by Immersed Particles Instrument(IR-NIPI), a new immersion freezing assay that makes use of IR emissions todetermine the freezing temperature of individual 50  µ L droplets eachcontained in a well of a 96-well plate. Using an IR camera allows thetemperature of individual aliquots to be monitored. Freezing temperatures aredetermined by detecting the sharp rise in well temperature associated withthe release of heat caused by freezing. In this paper we first present thecalibration of the IR temperature measurement, which makes use of the factthat following ice nucleation aliquots of water warm to the ice–liquidequilibrium temperature (i.e. 0  ∘ C when water activity is ∼1 ), which provides a point of calibration for each individualwell in each experiment. We then tested the temperature calibration using ∼100 µ m chips of K-feldspar, by immersing these chipsin 1  µ L droplets on an established cold stage ( µ L-NIPI) as wellas in 50  µ L droplets on IR-NIPI; the results were consistent with oneanother, indicating no bias in the reported freezing temperature. In additionwe present measurements of the efficiency of the mineral dust NX-illite and asample of atmospheric aerosol collected on a filter in the city of Leeds.NX-illite results are consistent with literature data, and the atmospheric INPconcentrations were in good agreement with the results from the µ L-NIPI instrument. This demonstrates the utility of this approach, whichoffers a relatively high throughput of sample analysis and access to low INPconcentrations.

An instrument for quantifying heterogeneous ice nucleation in multiwell plates using infrared emissions to detect freezing