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. This study provides a quantification of the maximum energy thatcan be generated from global waste and wastewater sectors in the timeframeto 2050, as well as of the potential limitations introduced by differentfuture waste and wastewater management regimes. Results show thatconsiderable amounts of carbon are currently stored in waste materialswithout being recovered for recycling or made available for energygeneration. Future levels of energy recovery when maintaining current statesof waste and wastewater management systems are contrasted with those thatcan be attained under a circular system identified here as a system withsuccessful implementation of food and plastic waste reduction policies,maximum recycling rates of all different types of waste streams, and oncethe recycling capacity is exhausted, incineration of remaining materials toproduce energy. Moreover, biogas is assumed to be produced from anaerobicco-digestion of food and garden wastes, animal manure, and anaerobicallytreated wastewater. Finally, we explore the limits for energy generationfrom waste and wastewater sources should the efficiency of energy recoverybe pushed further through development of existing technology. We find thatglobal implementation of such an ideal system could increase the relativecontribution of waste and wastewater sources to global energy demand from 2 %to 9 % by 2040, corresponding to a maximum energy potential of 64 EJper year. This would however require widespread adoption of policies andinfrastructure that stimulate and allow for large-scale waste prevention andseparation, as well as highly advanced treatment processes. Giving priorityto such efforts would enable circularity of the waste-energy system.

Carbon in global waste and wastewater flows – its potential as energy source under alternative future waste management regimes