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. Despite Australian dust's critical role in the regional climate andsurrounding marine ecosystems, the controlling factors of the spatiotemporalvariations of Australian dust are not fully understood. Here we assess theconnections between observed spatiotemporal variations of Australian dustwith key modes of large-scale climate variability, namely the ElNiño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and Madden–Julian Oscillation(MJO). Multiple dust observations from the Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET),weather stations, and satellite instruments, namely the Moderate ResolutionImaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer(MISR), are examined. The assessed multiple dust observations consistentlyidentify the natural and agricultural dust hotspots in Australia, includingthe Lake Eyre basin, Lake Torrens basin, Lake Frome basin, Simpson Desert,Barwon–Darling basin, Riverina, Barkly Tableland, and the lee side of the GreatDividing Range, as well as a country-wide, austral spring-to-summer peak in dustactivity. Our regression analysis of observed dust optical depth (DOD) upon anocean Niño index confirms previous model-based findings on the enhanceddust activity in southern and eastern Australia during the subsequent australspring and summer dust season following the strengthening of australwintertime El Niño. Our analysis further indicates the modulation of theENSO–dust relationship with the MJO phases. During sequential MJO phases, thedust-active center moves from west to east, associated with the eastwardpropagation of MJO, with the maximum enhancement in dust activity at about 120,130, and 140∘ E, corresponding to MJO phases 1–2, 3–4, and 5–6,respectively. MJO phases 3–6 are favorable for enhanced ENSO modulation ofdust activity, especially the occurrence of extreme dust events, insoutheastern Australia, currently hypothesized to be attributed to theinteraction between MJO-induced anomalies in convection and wind andENSO-induced anomalies in soil moisture and vegetation.

Assessing the contribution of the ENSO and MJO to Australian dust activity based on satellite- and ground-based observations