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. Large wildfires exert strong disturbance on regional andglobal climate systems and ecosystems by perturbing radiative forcing aswell as the carbon and water balance between the atmosphere and land surface,while short- and long-term variations in fire weather, terrestrialecosystems, and human activity modulate fire intensity and reshape fireregimes. The complex climate–fire–ecosystem interactions were not fullyintegrated in previous climate model studies, and the resulting effects onthe projections of future climate change are not well understood. Here weuse the fully interactive REgion-Specific ecosystem feedback Fire model(RESFire) that was developed in the Community Earth System Model (CESM) toinvestigate these interactions and their impacts on climate systems and fireactivity. We designed two sets of decadal simulations using CESM-RESFire forpresent-day (2001–2010) and future (2051–2060) scenarios, respectively, andconducted a series of sensitivity experiments to assess the effects ofindividual feedback pathways among climate, fire, and ecosystems. Ourimplementation of RESFire, which includes online land–atmosphere coupling offire emissions and fire-induced land cover change (LCC), reproduces theobserved aerosol optical depth (AOD) from space-based Moderate ResolutionImaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite products and ground-basedAErosol RObotic NETwork (AERONET) data; it agrees well with carbon budgetbenchmarks from previous studies. We estimate the global averaged netradiative effect of both fire aerosols and fire-induced LCC at - 0.59 ± 0.52  W m −2 , which is dominated by fireaerosol–cloud interactions ( - 0.82 ± 0.19  W m −2 ), in thepresent-day scenario under climatological conditions of the 2000s. Thefire-related net cooling effect increases by ∼170  % to - 1.60 ± 0.27  W m −2 in the 2050s under the conditions ofthe Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5 (RCP4.5) scenario. Suchconsiderably enhanced radiative effect is attributed to the largelyincreased global burned area ( +19  %) and fire carbon emissions( +100  %) from the 2000s to the 2050s driven by climate change. The netecosystem exchange (NEE) of carbon between the land and atmospherecomponents in the simulations increases by 33 % accordingly, implying thatbiomass burning is an increasing carbon source at short-term timescales inthe future. High-latitude regions with prevalent peatlands would be morevulnerable to increased fire threats due to climate change, and the increasein fire aerosols could counter the projected decrease in anthropogenicaerosols due to air pollution control policies in many regions. We alsoevaluate two distinct feedback mechanisms that are associated with fireaerosols and fire-induced LCC, respectively. On a global scale, the firstmechanism imposes positive feedbacks to fire activity through enhanceddroughts with suppressed precipitation by fire aerosol–cloud interactions,while the second one manifests as negative feedbacks due to reduced fuelloads by fire consumption and post-fire tree mortality and recoveryprocesses. These two feedback pathways with opposite effects compete atregional to global scales and increase the complexity ofclimate–fire–ecosystem interactions and their climatic impacts.

Using CESM-RESFire to understand climate–fire–ecosystem interactions and the implications for decadal climate variability