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. We identified scattered coal burning as the largest contributor toambient volatile organic compounds (VOCs), exceeding traffic-relatedemissions, during the heating season (the cold season when fossil fuelis burned for residential heating) in Beijing prior to the rigorousemission limitations enacted in 2017. However, scattered coal isunderestimated in emission inventories generally because the activitydata are incompletely recorded in official energy statistics. Resultsof positive matrix factorization (PMF) models confirmed that coalburning was the largest contributor to VOC mixing ratios prior to theemission limitations of 2017, and a reduction in scattered coalcombustion, especially in the rural residential sector, was the primaryfactor in the observed decrease in ambient VOCs and secondary organicaerosol (SOA) formation potential in urban Beijing after2017. Scattered coal burning was included in a corrected emissioninventory, and we obtained comparable results between this correctedinventory and PMF analysis particularly for the non-control period.However, a refined source subclassification showed that passenger carexhaust, petrochemical manufacturing, gas stations, trafficevaporation, traffic equipment manufacturing, painting, andelectronics manufacturing are also contributors to ambient VOCs. Thesesources should focus on future emission reduction strategies andtargets in Beijing. Moreover, in other regions with scatteredcoal-based heating, scattered coal burning is still the key factor toimprove the air quality in winter.

Scattered coal is the largest source of ambient volatile organic compounds during the heating season in Beijing