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. Understanding sources and atmospheric processes that can influencethe physiochemical properties of carbonaceous aerosols is essential toevaluate their impacts on air quality and climate. However, resolving thesources, emission characteristics, and aging processes of carbonaceousaerosols in complex urban environments remains challenging. In this work, asoot particle aerosol mass spectrometer (SP-AMS) was deployed tocharacterize organic aerosols (OAs), refractory black carbon (rBC), and trace metals inSingapore, a highly urbanized city with multiple local and regional airpollution sources in the tropical region. rBC (C1+–C9+)fragments and trace metal ions (K+, Na+, Ni+, V+, andRb+) were integrated into our positive matrix factorization of OA. Twotypes of fossil fuel combustion-related OAs with different degrees ofoxygenation were identified. This work provides evidence that over 90 % ofrBC originated from local combustion sources with a major part relatedto traffic and ∼30 % associated with freshsecondary organic aerosol (SOA) produced under the influence of shippingand industrial emission activities (e.g., refineries and petrochemicalplants) during daytime. The results also show that ∼43 % ofthe total rBC was emitted from local traffic, while the rest of the rBC fractionstemmed from multiple sources including vehicular sources, shipping, and industrialemissions, but was not fully resolved. There was only a weak associationof the cooking-related OA component with rBC. Although there was noobservable biomass burning episode during the sampling period, K+ andRb+ were mainly associated with the more oxidized oxygenated OAcomponent, indicating the potential contribution of regional biomass burningand/or coal combustion emissions to this aged OA component. Furthermore, theaerosol pollutants transported from the industrial area and shipping portspresented higher C1+/C3+ and V+/Ni+ ratios thanthose associated with traffic. The observed association between Na+ andrBC suggests that the contribution of anthropogenic emissions to totalparticulate sodium should not be ignored in coastal urban environments.Overall, this work demonstrates that rBC fragments and trace metal ions canimprove our understanding of the sources, emission characteristics, andaging history of carbonaceous aerosol (OA and rBC) in this type of complexurban environment.

atmospheric chemistry and physics

Characterization of carbonaceous aerosols in Singapore: insight from black carbon fragments and trace metal ions detected by a soot particle aerosol mass spectrometer