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. The Yangtze River Delta (YRD) and the megacity of Shanghai are host to one of the busiest portclusters in the world; the region also suffers from high levels of airpollution. The goal of this study was to estimate the contributions ofshipping to regional emissions, air quality, and population exposure and tocharacterize the importance of the geographic spatiality of shipping lanesand different types of ship-related sources for the baseline year of 2015,which was prior to the implementation of China's Domestic Emission ControlAreas (DECAs) in 2016. The WRF-CMAQ model, which combines the WeatherResearch and Forecasting model (WRF) and the Community Multi-scale AirQuality (CMAQ) model, was used to simulate the influence of coastal andinland-water shipping, port emissions and ship-related cargo transport on air quality and on thepopulation-weighted concentrations (which is a measure of humanexposure). Our results showed that the impact of shipping on air quality in the YRD wasprimarily attributable to shipping emissions within 12 NM (nautical miles)of shore, but emissions coming from the coastal area between 24 and 96 NMstill contributed substantially to ship-related PM 2.5 concentrations inthe YRD. The overall contribution of ships to the PM 2.5 concentration inthe YRD could reach 4.62  µ g m −3 in summer when monsoon windstransport shipping emissions onshore. In Shanghai city, inland-water goingships were major contributors (40 %–80 %) to the shipping impact onurban air quality. Given the proximity of inland-water ships to the urbanpopulations of Shanghai, the emissions of inland-water ships contributed moreto population-weighted concentrations. These research results providescientific evidence to inform policies for controlling future shippingemissions; in particular, in the YRD region, expanding the boundary of 12 NMfrom shore in China's current DECA policy to around 100 NM from shore wouldinclude most of shipping emissions affecting air pollutant exposure, andstricter fuel standards could be considered for the ships on inland riversand other waterways close to residential regions.

The influence of spatiality on shipping emissions, air quality and potential human exposure in the Yangtze River Delta/Shanghai, China