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. Ice-nucleating particles (INPs) have been found to influence theamount, phase and efficiency of precipitation from winter storms, includingatmospheric rivers. Warm INPs, those that initiate freezing at temperatureswarmer than −10 ∘ C, are thought to be particularly impactfulbecause they can create primary ice in mixed-phase clouds, enhancingprecipitation efficiency. The dominant sources of warm INPs during atmosphericrivers, the role of meteorology in modulating transport and injection of warmINPs into atmospheric river clouds, and the impact of warm INPs on mixed-phasecloud properties are not well-understood. In this case study, time-resolvedprecipitation samples were collected during an atmospheric river in northernCalifornia, USA, during winter 2016. Precipitation samples were collected attwo sites, one coastal and one inland, which are separated by about 35 km.The sites are sufficiently close that air mass sources during this storm werealmost identical, but the inland site was exposed to terrestrial sources ofwarm INPs while the coastal site was not. Warm INPs were more numerous inprecipitation at the inland site by an order of magnitude. Using FLEXPART (FLEXible PARTicledispersion model) dispersion modeling and radar-derived cloud vertical structure, we detectedinfluence from terrestrial INP sources at the inland site but did not findclear evidence of marine warm INPs at either site. We episodically detectedwarm INPs from long-range-transported sources at both sites. By extending theFLEXPART modeling using a meteorological reanalysis, we demonstrate thatlong-range-transported warm INPs were observed only when the uppertropospheric jet provided transport to cloud tops. Using radar-derivedhydrometeor classifications, we demonstrate that hydrometeors over theterrestrially influenced inland site were more likely to be in the ice phasefor cloud temperatures between 0 and −10 ∘ C. We thus conclude thatterrestrial and long-range-transported aerosol were important sources of warmINPs during this atmospheric river. Meteorological details such as transportmechanism and cloud structure were important in determining (i) warm INP sourceand injection temperature and (ii) ultimately the impact of warm INPs onmixed-phase cloud properties.

Contrasting local and long-range-transported warm ice-nucleating particles during an atmospheric river in coastal California, USA