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. We estimated the black carbon (BC) concentration over the Hindu Kush Himalayan region (HKH), its impact on snow albedo reduction, and sensitivityon annual glacier runoff over the identified glaciers. These estimates werebased on free-running aerosol simulations (freesimu) and constrainedaerosol simulations (constrsimu) from an atmospheric general circulationmodel, combined with numerical simulations of a glacial mass balance model. BCconcentration estimated from freesimu performed better over higher altitude(HA) HKH stations than that over lower altitude (LA) stations. The estimatesfrom constrsimu mirrored the measurements well when implemented for LAstations. Estimates of the spatial distribution of BC concentration in thesnowpack (BCc) over the HKH region led to identifying a hot-spot zonelocated around Manora Peak. Among glaciers over this zone, BCc(&gt;60 µg kg−1) and BC-induced snow albedo reduction (≈5 %)were estimated explicitly being high during the pre-monsoon for Pindari,Poting, Chorabari, and Gangotri glaciers (which are major sources of freshwater for the Indian subcontinent). The rate of increase of BCc inrecent years (i.e., over the period 1961–2010) was, however, estimated to bethe highest for the Zemu Glacier. Sensitivity analysis with a glacial massbalance model indicated the increase in annual runoff from debris-freeglacier areas due to BC-induced snow albedo reduction (SAR) corresponding tothe BCc estimated for the HKH glaciers was 4 %–18 %, with the highestbeing for the Milam and Pindari glaciers. The rate of increase in annualglacier runoff per unit BC-induced percentage SAR was specifically high forMilam, Pindari, and Sankalpa glaciers. The source-specific contribution toatmospheric BC aerosols by emission sources led to identifying the potentialemission source being primarily from the biofuel combustion in theIndo-Gangetic Plain south of 30∘ N, but also from open burning in amore remote region north of 30∘ N.

Simulations of black carbon (BC) aerosol impact over Hindu Kush Himalayan sites: validation, sources, and implications on glacier runoff