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. Using the method of offline radiative transfer modeling within the partialradiative perturbation (PRP) approach, the effective radiative forcingby aerosol–cloud interactions ( ERFaci ) in the ECHAM–HAMMOZ aerosol climatemodel is decomposed into a radiative forcing by anthropogenic cloud dropletnumber change and adjustments of the liquid water path and cloud fraction.The simulated radiative forcing by anthropogenic cloud dropletnumber change and liquid water path adjustment are ofapproximately equal magnitude at −0.52 and −0.53 W m−2 , respectively, while the cloud-fraction adjustment issomewhat weaker at −0.31 W m−2 (constituting 38 %, 39 %, and 23 %of the total ERFaci , respectively); geographically, all three ERFaci componentsin the simulation peak over China, the subtropical eastern ocean boundaries,the northern Atlantic and Pacific oceans, Europe, and eastern North America (inorder of prominence). Spatial correlations indicate that the temporal-meanliquid water path adjustment is proportional to the temporal-mean radiativeforcing, while the relationship between cloud-fraction adjustment andradiative forcing is less direct. While the estimate of warm-cloud ERFaci isrelatively insensitive to the treatment of ice and mixed-phase cloud overlyingwarm cloud, there are indications that more restrictive treatments of ice inthe column result in a low bias in the estimated magnitude of the liquid waterpath adjustment and a high bias in the estimated magnitude of the dropletnumber forcing. Since the present work is the first PRP decomposition of theaerosol effective radiative forcing into radiative forcing and rapid cloudadjustments, idealized experiments are conducted to provide evidence that thePRP results are accurate. The experiments show that using low-frequency(daily or monthly) time-averaged model output of the cloud property fieldsunderestimates the ERF, but 3-hourly mean output is sufficiently frequent.

atmospheric chemistry and physics

Separating radiative forcing by aerosol–cloud interactions and rapid cloud adjustments in the ECHAM–HAMMOZ aerosol–climate model using the method of partial radiative perturbations