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. A regional modeling study on the impact of desert dust on cloudformation is presented for a major Saharan dust outbreak over Europe from 2 to 5 April 2014. The dust event coincided with an extensive and densecirrus cloud layer, suggesting an influence of dust on atmospheric icenucleation. Using interactive simulation with the regional dust modelCOSMO-MUSCAT, we investigate cloud and precipitation representation in themodel and test the sensitivity of cloud parameters to dust–cloud anddust–radiation interactions of the simulated dust plume. We evaluate modelresults with ground-based and spaceborne remote sensing measurements of aerosol andcloud properties, as well as the in situ measurements obtained during theML-CIRRUS aircraft campaign. A run of the model with single-moment bulkmicrophysics without online dust feedback considerably underestimated cirruscloud cover over Germany in the comparison with infrared satellite imagery.This was also reflected in simulated upper-tropospheric ice water content(IWC), which accounted for only 20 % of the observed values. Theinteractive dust simulation with COSMO-MUSCAT, including a two-moment bulkmicrophysics scheme and dust–cloud as well as dust–radiation feedback, incontrast, led to significant improvements. The modeled cirrus cloud cover andIWC were by at least a factor of 2 higher in the relevant altitudescompared to the noninteractive model run. We attributed these improvementsmainly to enhanced deposition freezing in response to the high mineral dustconcentrations. This was corroborated further in a significant decrease inice particle radii towards more realistic values, compared to in situmeasurements from the ML-CIRRUS aircraft campaign. By testing differentempirical ice nucleation parameterizations, we further demonstrate thatremaining uncertainties in the ice-nucleating properties of mineral dustaffect the model performance at least as significantly asincluding the online representation of the mineral dust distribution.Dust–radiation interactions played a secondary role for cirrus cloudformation, but contributed to a more realistic representation ofprecipitation by suppressing moist convection in southern Germany. Inaddition, a too-low specific humidity in the 7 to 10 km altitude range inthe boundary conditions was identified as one of the main reasons for misrepresentationof cirrus clouds in this model study.

The impact of mineral dust on cloud formation during the Saharan dust event in April 2014 over Europe