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This study evaluates the forcing, rapid adjustment, and feedback of netshortwave radiation at the surface in the G4 experiment of the GeoengineeringModel Intercomparison Project by analysing outputs from six participatingmodels. G4 involves injection of 5 Tg yr−1 of SO2, asulfate aerosol precursor, into the lower stratosphere from year 2020 to 2069against a background scenario of RCP4.5. A single-layer atmosphericmodel for shortwave radiative transfer is used to estimate the direct forcingof solar radiation management (SRM), and rapid adjustment and feedbacks fromchanges in the water vapour amount, cloud amount, and surface albedo(compared with RCP4.5). The analysis shows that the globally and temporallyaveraged SRM forcing ranges from −3.6 to −1.6 W m−2, dependingon the model. The sum of the rapid adjustments and feedback effects due tochanges in the water vapour and cloud amounts increase the downwellingshortwave radiation at the surface by approximately 0.4 to 1.5 W m−2and hence weaken the effect of SRM by around 50 %. Thesurface albedo changes decrease the net shortwave radiation at the surface;it is locally strong (∼ −4 W m−2) in snow and sea ice meltingregions, but minor for the global average. The analyses show that the resultsof the G4 experiment, which simulates sulfate geoengineering, include largeinter-model variability both in the direct SRM forcing and the shortwaverapid adjustment from change in the cloud amount, and imply a highuncertainty in modelled processes of sulfate aerosols and clouds

atmospheric chemistry and physics

Shortwave radiative forcing, rapid adjustment, and feedback to the surface by sulfate geoengineering: analysis of the Geoengineering Model Intercomparison Project G4 scenario