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We investigate 3-D mountain effects on solar flux distributions and theirimpact on surface hydrology over the western United States, specifically theRocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada, using the global CCSM4 (Community Climate System Model version 4; Community Atmosphere Model/Community Land Model – CAM4/CLM4) with a0.23° × 0.31° resolution for simulations over 6 years.In a 3-D radiative transfer parameterization, we have updated surfacetopography data from a resolution of 1 km to 90 m to improveparameterization accuracy. In addition, we have also modified the upward-fluxdeviation (3-D–PP (plane-parallel)) adjustment to ensure that the energy balanceat the surface is conserved in global climate simulations based on 3-Dradiation parameterization. We show that deviations in the net surface fluxesare not only affected by 3-D mountains but also influenced by feedbacks ofcloud and snow in association with the long-term simulations. Deviations insensible heat and surface temperature generally follow the patterns of netsurface solar flux. The monthly snow water equivalent (SWE) deviations showan increase in lower elevations due to reduced snowmelt, leading to areduction in cumulative runoff. Over higher-elevation areas, negative SWEdeviations are found because of increased solar radiation available at thesurface. Simulated precipitation increases for lower elevations, whileit decreases for higher elevations, with a minimum in April. Liquid runoffsignificantly decreases at higher elevations after April due to reduced SWEand precipitation

A global model simulation for 3-D radiative transfer impact on surface hydrology over the Sierra Nevada and Rocky Mountains